INTERNATIONAL APPROACHES TO PHYSICAL EDUCATION: A COMPARISON Written by:Peter Rattigan, PhD, Paul Blair, PhD, & Clive Hickson, PhD.

As the United States has moved towards a standards-based approach to education, including physical education (PE), we have been interested in looking at how other countries approach their physical education curriculum and instruction.

The U.S. has no national curriculum. Each state is responsible for its academic standards, and each discipline has developed national standards. Many U.S. states follow the National Association of Sport and Physical Education National Standards (NASPE, 2004). States differ – for example some states have specific PE standards (e.g., Utah, California), others combine Health and PE (e.g., New Jersey), while others include more (New York includes consumer science). Even the nomenclature differs (New Jersey has “content standards” and “progress indicators;” California has “model content standards”). State mandates or requirements for physical education vary widely.

Physical education in the U.S. is, for the most part, taught by certified physical education teachers, although classroom teachers may be found teaching elementary physical education. According to NASPE, a quality PE program should be taught by a certified physical education specialist, provide opportunities for all students to learn, and have meaningful content and appropriate instructional practices (NASPE, 2004). NASPE recommends 150 minutes per week for elementary and 225 minutes per week for secondary classes.

This article presents national approaches to physical education in five different countries around the world. China and Scotland are similar to the United States in that they follow a national standards approach. New Zealand, Hungary, and Jamaica each have a national curriculum. Each country is described in terms of its approach (national standards/national curriculum), underlying concepts, key aspects of learning, implementation, and resource provision.

China: National Standards
The China Law of Physical Education and Sport (China Ministry of Education, 1995) established 7 mandates with which schools must comply:

• PE is a regular part of school education.
• PE classes are listed as academic courses that are regularly assessed and sufficient to meet the needs of special students.
• Time must be allocated for students to participate in physical activities every day to meet national fitness standards.
• A variety of after-school activity programs, training, and sports competitions are provided; annually, a school-wide physical activity and sport meet is conducted.
• Physical educators need to be qualified according to national regulations and should receive benefits related to the job specifications.
• Physical activity fields, facilities, and equipment must be used for physical activities only.
• Student physical examinations must be given, and administrative supervision for the improvement of students’ fitness must be provided.

China has developed national standards in part based on U.S. standards (NASPE, 1995). In 2001 the China Ministry of Education (CME) published the first set of national standards for physical education and health, based on student outcomes and ensuring that all students:

• Are physically fit, demonstrate competency in many movement forms, and obtain knowledge and skills of physical activities and health.
• Participate regularly in physical activity.
• Demonstrate communication and cooperation among people.
• Demonstrate individual responsibility for personal and community health and exhibit a healthy lifestyle.
• Achieve a positive life attitude from physical education (from Liang, Walls & Lu, 2005).

Key Aspects of Learning
The China standards are similar to NASPE standards, paralleling a “Westernized” trend in Chinese sport (China.org, 2004). Unlike NASPE standards, the China national standards include both PE and Health. NASPE and China standards emphasize movement skills and concepts, fitness, personal responsibility, and a healthy and active lifestyle. China standards also address participation, communication, and cooperation; NASPE addresses diversity, enjoyment, challenge, and self-expression.

Implementation
There is considerable political support for physical education in China:

• It is mandated that physical education be provided to grades one through 12.
• Satisfactory completion of physical education is a requirement for advancement to the next grade level and for graduation. Administrative sanctions can be applied to schools that fail to provide one hour of physical activity each day, including at least three after-school physical activity sessions and two physical education classes each week.
• Officially, if a student fails to participate for one-third of the total class hours in one semester, he/she cannot be given a passing score and will not be considered as achieving the PE requirements for graduation. He/she can only receive a learning certificate, and as such will not qualify for higher education (China Education and Research Network, 2001).

The PE mandates are very positive and protective of physical education (and sport) as a core part of the school curriculum. However, implementation has been inconsistent:

• The scale of implementation is daunting. In China, 200,000,000 children in grades one through 12 receive physical education programming in 540,000 schools (People's Education Press, 2002).
• Rural schools tend to have less funding but more physical education classes per week than urban schools. Qu (1998) found that 87% of schools in larger towns provided physical education classes two times or more per week. In smaller country towns, 82% provided classes two times or more each week.
• Wang et al. (2001) reported that elementary and secondary schools provided physical education two or more times each week in 86% of cities, 92.7% of towns, and 100% of rural areas in the Shandong province (on China's more developed east coast). Rural areas usually have more elementary schools, fewer middle and high schools, and larger class sizes than urban areas. Rural school pupils received more physical education classes per week despite the fact that the average per-pupil funding each year in the Shandong province was less for rural areas (28¢) than for towns (64¢) and cities ($1.05).

Teacher qualifications are an issue in implementation (Liang et al, 2005):

• Less than a third of China’s PE teachers have bachelor’s degrees (30%) or above (1% have graduate degrees). Fifty-eight percent of physical educators have associate degrees; twelve percent have only a high school diploma.
• According to China’s Law of Educators, elementary teachers should hold a diploma from a three-year teacher training school, where graduates from secondary school can go if they do not wish to go to high school or college but want to teach. Middle school teachers should hold a degree from a 2-3 year teacher college or earn a bachelor’s degree; high school teachers should earn a bachelor’s or master’s degree.
• There are height and fitness requirements for entrance to PE teacher training programs, as well as age (22 or younger) and marital status (unmarried).
• PETE programs include traditional content but little in the way of teaching methodology, motor development/learning, or diversity. However, field experience and student teaching are required.

Scotland: National Standards (With National Curriculum Elements)
Scottish education (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2008) does not follow a national curriculum, but rather a series of guidelines that have elements of national curriculum and national standards. Physical education is part of the of the “Learning and Teaching Scotland” (LTS) program. LTS is a non-departmental, government sponsored organization responsible for supporting and developing public education curriculum. Physical education is part of the “5-14” curriculum initiative in LTS, supporting primary education through the first two years of secondary education. Physical education is a subject within Expressive Arts, along with Art & Design, Music, and Drama. Health Education is a separate subject area.

Underlying Concepts
The purpose of the Expressive Arts is to promote pupils’ affective, physical, cognitive, personal, and social development, and to promote awareness of cultural heritage, values, and diversity. Common to all four areas of Expressive Arts are three broad attainment outcomes. These include: using media, skills, and techniques; expressing feelings/ideas/thoughts/solutions; and evaluating/appreciating. Within each outcome is a number of strands or aspects of learning.

Key Aspects of Learning
Attainment outcomes each have aspects of learning. Most strands include attainment targets. There are basically five levels of attainment for each strand, increasing in knowledge and/or skill level. Strands of attainment are informed by a programme (sic) of study.

At the elementary level, physical education content is based on movement education:

• Locomotor skills
• Stability skills
• Manipulative skills
• Space (general, personal, directions, levels, pathways)
• Dynamics (force, speed and flow)
• Relationships (with people and objects)

At the secondary level, content is based more on specialized skills & fitness:

• Physical fitness development
• Team and individual sports; skills and strategies
• Gymnastics and dance
• Outdoor education

It is recommended that assessment be holistic, as it is based on the three attainment outcomes of using, expressing, & appreciating. Recommendations include: observation of on-going work and ways of working; observation of or listening to completed work; discussion of their work and responses with pupils; assessment of pupils' responses to special assignments or tasks.

Implementation and Resource Provision
In a 1997 report, almost all schools had implemented 5-14 planning, and 75% of teachers had revised their curriculums (across all subjects) (Malcolm & Schlapp, 1997). In 2004, The Report of the Review Group on physical education recommended more time, more teachers, and more choice be allotted to Scottish Physical Education. The Scottish Minister for Education and Young People endorsed the report, promising 400 new teachers and increased time for PE classes. The Review Group recommended LTS for implementing these improvements and other reforms such as improvement of professional development and best practices.

Professional preparation in Scottish education is typically primary or secondary. Primary preparation (primary teachers tend not to be specialists) includes: 4-year undergraduate program such as the Bachelor of Education or combined degrees; 1-year Professional Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE), completed after a degree; and part-time PGDE course, usually done in partnership with local authorities. Secondary preparation includes a 4-year Bachelor of Education degree course in Physical Education or a 1-year Professional Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE), completed after a BA/BS degree; and part-time or distant learning PGDE courses, again usually in partnership with local authorities (General Teaching Council of Scotland, 2008).

Preparation is followed by a two year probationary period in a school. In order to successfully meet the Standard for Full Registration, teachers go through Continuing Professional Development (CPD) using four main elements:
1) engaging in regular meetings with supporter (mentor) to discuss progress; 2) utilizing feedback from observations of teaching; 3) recording and reflecting upon specific CPD experiences in the probationary period; and 4) gaining professional development from having a varied timetable of teaching experiences. LTS also serves as a resource for professional development, including posting workshops and professional development activities, web sites, blogs and podcasts, lesson ideas, and communication forums.

Scotland recently underwent a wave of school building and refurbishing. In surveys of physical education teachers after refurbishment, most rated their school's new gymnasia, games hall, or other PE facilities as 'very good,' 'good,' or 'adequate.' (Learning and Teaching Scotland, 2008)

New Zealand: National Curriculum
New Zealand’s physical education curriculum framework combines health education, physical education, and home economics. Four strands form the core of the curriculum. Each strand has 3-4 associated achievement aims. There are four underlying concepts in the curriculum framework, and it addresses 7 key areas of learning. (New Zealand Ministry of Education,1999)

Strands and Achievement Aims

• Personal health and physical development: Growth & development; Regular physical Activity; Safety; Personal identity and self worth.
• Movement concepts and motor skills: Movement skills; Positive attitudes/challenge; Science & technology; Social and cultural factors.
• Relationships with other people: Relationships; Identity, sensitivity & respect; interpersonal skills.
• Healthy communities and environments: Societal attitudes & beliefs; Community resources; Rights, responsibilities & laws; People & the environment.

Underlying Concepts
Well-being or hauora is a Mäori philosophy of health. It includes taha tinana (physical well-being), taha hinengaro (mental and emotional well-being), taha whänau (social well-being) and taha wairua (spiritual well-being). Health promotion encourages students to take responsibility for helping create supportive physical and emotional environments in classrooms, schools, communities, and society. A Socio-ecological perspective emphasizes social & environmental factors affecting health & well-being. The importance of attitudes and values means that emphasis is placed on promoting particular attitudes and values. The aim is to positively affect behavior in the public schools. (New Zealand Ministry of Education,1999)

Key areas of learning
7 key areas of learning are included in the health and physical education curriculum for students in both elementary and secondary levels, through year 10. These include:

1. Mental health
2. Sexuality education
3. Food and nutrition
4. Body care and physical safety
5. Physical activity
6. Sport studies
7. Outdoor education

Implementation and Resource Provision
To help implement the new curriculum, the Ministry of Education contracted providers to offer professional development to schools in preparation for full implementation in 2001. Prior to 2001, professional development participation rates of schools varied widely. The Ministry of Education has provided a number of teaching and learning resources to assist schools in implementing the new curriculum in addition to professional development. These include leaflets, articles, and electronic resources. Schools and organizations providing services to schools have developed resources as well. (Education Review Office, 2001)

Hungary: National Curriculum
Physical education is part of the Hungarian National Core Curriculum (NCC). It is one of ten “Core Domains of Education.” It can be considered a combination of health education, sport, and physical education. The phases of education identified in the NCC are:

• Grades 1 to 4
• Grades 5 and 6
• Grades 7 and 8
• Grades 9 to 12
(Hungarian Ministry of Education & Culture, 2006)

Underlying Concepts
Key development tasks across the curriculum include: Self image and self knowledge; Homeland; European awareness/Global culture; Environmental education; Information and communication culture; Learning; Physical and mental health; and Preparing for the roles of adult life (Hungarian Ministry of Education and Culture, 2008). Priority objectives or general development objectives in physical education include:

• Health improvement and healthy physical development of children
• Improving fitness, physical and mental adaptation, physical and mental condition
• Transmission and checking of knowledge about sports and exercise
• Entertainment, joy, satisfaction and the desire to compete
(Hungarian Ministry of Education and Culture, 2006)

Key Aspects of Learning
Detailed objectives in physical education are divided up by knowledge, skills, and minimum competencies for years 4, 6, 8, and 10 in the following areas:

• Organizational exercises (marching exercises)
• Preparatory, foundation, and preventative exercises
• Relaxation
• Track and field exercises (running, skipping, jumping, throwing)
• Gymnastic exercises (supports, climbs, balances)
• Rhythmic gymnastics, aerobic exercises (for girls only)
• Games (handball, basketball, football, volleyball)
• Outdoor and recreational activities
• Self-defense and martial arts
• Swimming
(Hamar, Peters, Van Berlo & Hardman, 2006)

Assessment in Hungarian physical education is changing from a more rigid model of fitness testing to a more progressive performance-based approach. However, efficient and effective ways of doing this are still a work-in-progress.

Implementation, Professional Preparation, and Resource Provision
Implementation follows a “bipolar model.” There is a national curriculum, and schools must address the key development tasks, priority objectives, and detailed objectives. However, local school districts and schools can implement the curriculum with a certain level of local control. All schools implement the PE national or frame curriculum, which means that physical education is a compulsory subject in every school, with a minimum number of 2.5 lessons per week.

All physical education teacher candidates have to demonstrate competency in the contents of the curriculum. This includes different activities like sport games (basketball, handball, volleyball and soccer), track and field athletics, gymnastic, swimming, winter sports (skiing, skating, combat sports). Candidates must master the theoretical requirements related to pedagogical, psychological, social science, anatomical, and physiological knowledge. Candidates undergo coursework in theory and methodology of physical education, and finally participate in a school teaching practicum. This practicum includes 200-250 lessons. Out of this the student teachers have to teach 120 lessons. The candidates are highly qualified for each age group level, from 6-18 years, as well as for adults (Dr. Imre Makszin, Semmelweis University, Budapest).

Resource provision for physical education in Hungarian schools includes the following:

Indoors
• Approximately 20% of schools have gymnasium or exercise rooms.
• Physical education classes are held in swimming pools, sports fields, ice-skating rinks, leased gymnasia, etc.
• 29% of gymnasiums have no showers.
• 23% of gymnasiums have showers but no time to use them.
Outdoors
• 28% of schoolyards & facilities are considered ideal for sports, relaxation, & play.
• 31% of schoolyards & facilities are considered satisfactory for sports, relaxation, & play.
• 40% of schoolyards & facilities are considered unsatisfactory for sports, relaxation, & play.
• 1% of schools have no facilities.
(European Environment and Health Committee, 2003)

Jamaica: National Curriculum
The Jamaican Ministry of Education White Paper (2007) stipulated that the Ministry of Education, Youth and Culture is responsible for planning, directing, and assessing education in Jamaica. At the Basic school level, each Parish is responsible for management. In the fourteen parishes, individual school programs are administered by a Board of Management.

The stated Jamaican aims are to provide education to all persons in Jamaica in order to optimize individual and national development. Primary education (through grade six) is universal, with free textbooks and a subsidized meal program. Jamaicans are encouraged to continue education through Grade 11 or age 17, whichever is later. In addition to traditional secondary schools (grades 7-13), students may attend vocational, technical, or agricultural schools. Physical education is recognized as an essential component of the health and well being of Jamaican citizens and, as such, is well-supported in the curriculum guidelines prepared by educators and government representatives.

Underlying Concepts - “Each child can learn and every child must.”
Physical education is important because of the role it plays in individual development, the enhancement of discipline, and the potential for career development in the region (Ministry of Education, 2007). Other important concepts for Jamaican schools are: respect for self and others; respect for authority; respect for the environment; honesty, integrity, and national pride; loyalty to school and nation; a sense of discipline; a sense of responsibility; and a “proper work ethic.” Physical education programs are based on the following concepts:

• Holistic Development of the individual
• Motor Skills and Components of Physical Fitness
• Lifestyles in regard to Fitness, Hygiene, Basic Lifestyle Activities, Attitudes and Values
• Development of Mind and Senses
• Individual Growth in Self-Esteem and Socially Acceptable Attitudes and Values

Key Aspects of Learning
Key aspects of learning are specified in physical education curriculum guides. Although aspects of health and fitness are obvious in curriculum guides, they are not specifically listed until the fourth grade program.

K-3 education follows an integrated learning model in which “My Body” is a core component. Grade-appropriate instruction in health, safety, fitness, nutrition, movement concepts, and movement skills are addressed in the integrated learning model.

In Grades 4 to 6, specific physical education classes are conducted following specified curricula focusing on movement education, games, and lifestyle.

In Grades 7 through 9, students receive instruction (each year) in seasonal sports, theory in lifestyle (on health-related and lifestyle topics), and a specified grade-level curriculum. Seasonal sports include netball, football, track and field, cricket, and volleyball. Each sport is broken down in the curriculum guide to identify objectives and instruction appropriate to each of the grade levels. The Grade 7 program has a specific focus on movement education (physical skills, control of body movements, and performance safety), while the Grade 8 and 9 content centers on educational gymnastics and dance.

Implementation, Professional Preparation, and Resource Provision
In Jamaica, each school implements instructional programs based on Parish and Regional Education Area guidelines. Implementation is directed by each of fourteen parishes with individual schools administered by a Board of Management for the individual programs.

Teachers are expected to engage in lifelong learning and professional development. To assist teachers in this endeavor, the Teachers Professional Development Revolving Loan Fund was established by the Ministry of Education & Youth in June 2007 to help advance the goal of creating excellent teachers who perform at world-class standards.

The Ministry Of Education, Youth & Culture is supported by a number of affiliated agencies. Among these are:

• The Jamaica Library Service
• Nutrition Products Limited
• Human Employment & Resources Training Trust/National Training Agency (HEART/NTA);
• The National Heritage Trust
• The Institute of Jamaica
• The University Council of Jamaica

International Conversations
We look forward to comparing and contrasting physical education in countries all over the world, and would like to invite educators and researchers from the U.S. and other countries to contribute to this conversation. We believe it to be an essential tool in creating a global perspective that will help people all over the world to find a common language, understanding and mutual appreciation.

view references

(pelinks4u home)