Methodology

Participants
All ten participants were female intercollegiate basketball players from the same team at a National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA) university in California. The team was divided into two groups. The experimental group (N=5) consisted of two juniors (21-year-olds) and three freshmen (18-year-olds), while the control group (N=5) comprised one senior (21-year-old), a junior (29-year-old), and three freshmen (18-year-olds). Both groups incorporated players at the post, forward and guard positions. Informed consent was obtained prior to the start of data collection. Pseudonyms were used to protect the participants' anonymity.

Procedure

The procedure, including the tests administered to the athletes, is included in chart form below.

Table 1
Procedure used in Study of PST Program and Rebounding with Female Collegiate Basketball Players

Psychological Skills Training (PST) Intervention

The experimental group athletes participated in the psychological skills training (PST) program. These sessions were conducted prior to practice by the first author. During each session, the four psychological skills (i.e., goal-setting, relaxation, imagery or self-talk) were emphasized in relation to offensive and defensive rebounding. A brief overview of the program is included.

Goal setting exercises discussed the characteristics of effective goals (Gould, 2001) and emphasized specific and process-oriented goals. Intervention group athletes were paired together and became "Goal Buddies" in an effort to help the athletes set realistic rebounding practice goals. Each "Goal Buddy" also acted as an accountability partner.
Relaxation techniques which included deep breathing exercises (e.g., "breathwatching") (Lynch & Scott, 1999), meditation-focusing (mantra), and progressive relaxation exercises (Williams & Harris, 2001) were introduced. Each relaxation session was followed by a short debriefing discussion about the exercises.

Relaxation techniques were also used in conjunction with imagery rehearsal exercises. More specifically, the imagery sessions focused on using all of the senses to create or re-create the experience of rebounding a basketball. The athletes also used imagery to recreate their best past performances and difficult situations (e.g., turning the ball over or missed shots) where they could respond in positive ways.

Finally, the introduction of self-talk involved task-specific phrases (e.g., "power up" and "crash") and mood (or positive) phrases (e.g., "I am quick to the boards" and "the ball is mine"). One self-talk exercise comprised the creation of "positive posters," whereby the players wrote words, phrases and pasted pictures that motivated and encouraged them towards their goals.

Instruments

Rebounding. In order to establish rebounding performance, eight practice-scrimmage sessions were videotaped. The inter-squad scrimmages (approximately 15-20 minutes of each practice) provided a game-like assessment of the athletes' offensive and defensive rebounding skills. The frequency of rebounding was recorded and a mean rebounding score was calculated for each athlete at each interval (i.e., pre-, and post-intervention). It should be noted that the frequency measure was limited to the actual number of offensive and defensive rebounds that were attained and did not include rebounding form or created opportunities for teammates (i.e., tipped balls).

Test of performance strategies (TOPS). All ten athletes completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) (Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). The TOPS is a 64-item, self-report instrument designed to measure the psychological skills and strategies used by athletes in both competition and practice. The test uses a five-point likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always) to evaluate the athletes' use of psychological skills in specific areas (i.e., competition, training). This test was chosen because it assesses the psychological skills used in the present study. TOPS has 16 subscales. Eight subscales related to the psychological skills emphasized in the study (i.e., a practice and competition subscale for each of the following skills: goal-setting, imagery, relaxation and self-talk) were used.

Pre-intervention interview. Finally, all the athletes participated in an individual semi-structured interview. This interview focused on the athletes' current knowledge and use of psychological skills in competition and training.
Post-intervention interview. At the conclusion of the program, the intervention group athletes were again interviewed to ascertain the extent to which their participation had an impact on their knowledge and use of the psychological skills taught. The control group athletes did not participate in this final interview.

Both types of interviews lasted approximately 15 to 20 minutes, were audio taped and transcribed verbatim.

Results

Rebounding

Prior to the start of the intervention program, a t-test was calculated to determine if there were any significant differences in rebounding frequency between the two groups. Results showed that there was no significant difference between the experimental group and the control group with respect to rebounding frequency (p<.293).

There were a total of 54 rebounds on the rebounding pre-test. The experimental group achieved 30 rebounds (mean = 6), while the control group completed 24 rebounds (mean = 4.8). For the post-test, the experimental group scored 44 rebounds (mean = 8.8), while the control group completed 19 rebounds (mean = 3.8).

Independent samples t-test on the post-test rebounding scores were interpreted with a modified alpha level of 0.025 (Darlington, 1990). Results showed that the experimental group had significantly more rebounds as compared to the control group (p = 0.0246). The experimental group improved their rebounding by almost 50% from the pre-test to the post-test. No significant change was found for the control group.

Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS)

From the pre-test to the post-test, the experimental group improved their TOPS-Practice scores in all four subscales (goal-setting, relaxation, imagery and self-talk), while the control group only improved on the goal-setting subscale. Both groups' highest scores were in the area of goal-setting. The experimental group scored the biggest improvement on the self-talk subscale (+.85). Please see Table 2 below.

Table 2

Scores for the TOPS in Practice Settings

From the pre-test to the post-test, the experimental group improved their TOPS-Competition scores in the goal-setting, relaxation and self-talk subscales, while the control group improved in the goal-setting, relaxation and imagery subscales. The control group's biggest improvement was in the area of goal-setting (+.60), while the experimental group's biggest improvement was in the area of relaxation (+.60). Please see Table 3 below.

Table 3

Scores for the TOPS in Competition Settings

Pre-Intervention Interviews

Two main themes emerged as a result of the pre-intervention interview process. First, only one athlete (control group) had previous experience working with a Sport Psychology Consultant. Second, their knowledge of the psychological skills was limited, but some athletes did state that they used certain psychological skills on their own. However, this use was limited and informal, occurring primarily during competition.

Post-Intervention Interviews

When asked about the psychological skills training (PST) program, all five experimental group athletes responded in a positive way. Some athletes noted that the PST program presented information that they had never given much thought to in the past and that they felt it would make them better players overall. One athlete also said, "It was good for me when I was struggling."
All five athletes felt that they learned about goal setting, imagery and self-talk as a result of their involvement in the PST program. For example, athletes stated that they now set specific goals that helped them to be more focused during practice. The positive posters exercise served as helpful reminders of their goals and was especially well received. With respect to imagery, the athletes reported that they were able to use mental rehearsal to help them focus as well as help their bodies respond in more automatic ways. Interestingly, one athlete also noted, "It helped me remember how much fun basketball can be, and that I can actually play well." Athletes used self-talk to give themselves encouragement and to increase their mood or arousal level. For example, when she was tired, one athlete would say statements such as, "You're strong," "Keep going" and "You can do it." Athletes also used task-specific cue words to help them achieve optimal performance (e.g., "crash" when rebounding).

The relaxation component was also well received with 4 of the 5 athletes stating that they had learned about relaxation as a result of their involvement with the PST program. One athlete noted that she was able to use relaxation skills to help her feel less anxious before games. The cloud breathing exercise, a relaxation exercise that uses visualization and deep breathing, was a favorite, while progressive muscle relaxation was not found to be effective. One athlete reported that the relaxation component was difficult because she had trouble finding a happy medium between being too relaxed and too tense.
When asked if they would continue to use any of the mental skills on their own all five athletes responded that they would continue to use positive self-talk statements. Three athletes also reported that they would use relaxation techniques while two said they would continue to use imagery. No athletes discussed their continued use of goal setting techniques.

Discussion

Rebounding

This study suggests that a psychological skills package of goal-setting, imagery rehearsal, relaxation and self-talk may be effective in improving rebounding numbers. The experimental group improved their rebounding numbers by almost 50%, while the control group did not improve on their post-test rebounding numbers. This is consistent with the results of Kendall, Hrycaiko, Martin, and Kendall (1990) who found that female basketball players exposed to a PST program also improved their defensive performance of cutting off the baseline.

Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS)

With only one exception (goal setting for experimental group), the TOPS scores revealed that the athletes were more likely to use the psychological skills during competition as compared to during practice situations. This is consistent with Frey, Laguna, and Ravizza (2003) who found that Division I baseball and softball athletes had significantly higher use of mental skills in competition than practice. Athletes spend significantly more time in practice as opposed to competition; some estimates of the practice to competition ratio are as high as 99:1 (McCann, 1995). Furthermore, although practices can be very intense, they are generally regarded as lower-pressure situations when compared to competitive events and their associated higher stakes. Thus, practice situations are an ideal place for athletes to practice and refine their mental skills. If given the opportunities and encouragement to rehearse these skills during practice, it is thought that they will be able to use them in more consistent and effective ways during competition, which may ultimately lead to improved performance.
(Throughout the study, the first author kept a journal about the PST program. Notes related to the program's implementation, the athletes' level of reception and engagement with the skills and the most effective strategies were included. Due to the magnitude of the results, the journal entries were not included in this manuscript. They are mentioned here, however, in support of the next few points.)

With respect to specific psychological skills, both the experimental group and the control group scored higher on the post-tests (practice and competition) as compared to the pre-tests for goal setting. These scores may reflect the coaches' emphasis on goal setting as part of the regular practice and competition routine. For example, all athletes were required to set daily practice goals as well as long-term season goals. The coaches included time during practice for discussion and review of daily practice goals. Also the coaches met with the athletes at various points throughout the season to review their long-term goals. The coaches' continued focus on goal setting (supported from notes in the first author's journal) help to explain the high TOPS results for both groups in the area of goal setting. The high scores and the coaches' emphasis provide support for the inclusion of goal setting when implementing a psychological skills training program with athletes as effective goals can give athletes a sense of purpose and may also help them to stay motivated and focused (Johnson & Gilbert, in press).

Overall and Post-intervention Interview Results

When using the psychological skills, keeping it positive was the most effective. The athletes were more apt to practice and use psychological skills that emphasized positive words and images. For example, positive self-talk cues were continually practiced by all of the athletes and were found to be the most helpful with respect to rebounding performance. The athletes noted that their cues became "switch" mechanisms that helped them focus on rebounding during practice. The positive posters were also very effective. The athletes used them during the intervention and upon its completion on their own to help create and maintain a positive perspective about their sport. Finally, the imagery exercise found to be the most beneficial emphasized a past performance in which the athletes performed well. Therefore, when implementing PST programs with athletes, exercises that emphasize positive aspects of their sport and performance may be most effective.

Finally, the athletes found the four psychological skills to be helpful in their sport. Based on this, the authors suggest including goal setting, positive self-talk, imagery and relaxation in PST programs with athletes. Also, according to the first author's journal notes, the two experimental group athletes that improved their rebounding numbers the most were the most active participants during the PST intervention process. Not all athletes will "buy into" sport psychology and PST programs. Not surprisingly, the ones that do engage with the process seem to receive the most benefit from the psychological skills and their use. As mentioned previously, athletes that consistently achieve successful performances possess excellent psychological skills (Weinberg & Gould, 2003). Thus, coaches and sport psychology consultants need to help athletes see the advantages of using psychological skills in their sport. The authors provide the following suggestions to assist athletes in this endeavor: (a) discuss professional athletes that successfully use psychological skills, (b) give ample practice time and encourage the athletes in this unfamiliar quest, and (c) make the exercises as relevant and sport-specific as possible. If coaches follow these suggestions, it is anticipated that their athletes will get the most benefit of a PST program, which may ultimately lead to more consistent and successful sport performances.

References

Darlington, R. B. (1990). Regression and linear models. New York: McGraw Hill.

Frey, M., Laguna, P. L., & Ravizza, K. (2003). Collegiate athletes' mental skill use and
perceptions of success: An exploration of the practice and competition settings. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 115-128.

Gould, D. (2001). Goal setting for peak performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.) Applied
sport psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (4th ed., pp. 190-205). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Halliwell, W., Orlick, T., Ravizza, K., & Rotella, B. (1999). Consultant's guide to
excellence. Chelsea, Quebec: Orlick Excel.

Johnson, C. A., & Gilbert, J. N. (in press). The psychological uniform: Using mental
skills in youth sport. Strategies.

Kendall, G., Hrycaiko, D., Martin, G., & Kendall, T. (1990). The effects of an imagery
rehearsal, relaxation, and self-talk package on basketball game performance. Journal
of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12, 157-166.

Lynch, J., & Scott, W. (1999). Running within. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
McCann, S. (1995). Overtraining and burnout. In S. M. Murphy (Ed.), Sport psychology
interventions (pp. 347-368). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence: How to win in sport and life through mental
training (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Thomas, P. R., Murphy, S. M., & Hardy, L. (1999). Test of performance strategies:
Development and preliminary validation of a comprehensive measure of athletes'
psychological skills. Journal of Sport Sciences, 17, 697-711.

Vealey, R., & Greenleaf, C. (2001). Seeing is believing: Understanding and using
imagery in sport. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology (4th ed., pp. 247-
281). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (3rd
ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Williams, J. M., & Harris, D. V. (2001). Relaxation and energizing techniques for
regulation of arousal. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied sport psychology (4th ed., pp. 229-246). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

Contact Mike Pendelton or Jenelle Gilbert.