Erik D. Farfan, California State University, Fresno

Insight about the dimensions found to facilitate optimal performance can better inform exercise practitioners in promoting and nurturing this special phenomenon. Thus, each of us, if possible, should jump at the chance of harnessing vital information regarding optimal performance and any method of elevating the overall level in executing a skill. The purpose of this paper is to share ideas on how to create an environment that can be conducive to facilitating optimal performance, or what is otherwise commonly referred to as experiencing flow or being “in the zone.”

The ‘Zone’

In one form or another, we have probably all experienced the feelings associated with achieving states of flow. It can occur while executing various activities. The Individual Zone of Optimal Function (IZOF) was introduced almost a quarter of a century ago by Yuri Hanin through observation found variation in anxiety among hockey players, runners, and other athletes. The IZOF allows that each of us has a pre-competition emotional state that helps us perform our best. Sport psychologist Michael Gervais conveys that, “Although flow is a term mostly referred to in sports, it’s applicable to any endeavor, whether it’s on a field, in front of a canvas, or onstage” (Grant, 2002, p.14). Being “in the zone” can be described as achieving a state when our mental and emotional states merge with the execution of motor skills and physical movement. In other words, our performance of a particular task can become seemingly effortless, and in a sense becomes subconsciously automatic. Our senses become heightened, our execution of motor skills is sharpened, and our ability to perform the task at hand rises above the level generally experienced. In addition, Csikszentmihalyi (1997), who began researching this phenomenon in 1975, attests that without it (flow), “people are depriving themselves of what makes life worth living” (p.98). Therefore, any advantage coaches have in creating an environment that helps nurture these elevated levels of performance and increase the chances athletes have to achieve states of flow would be of great value. Understanding the psychology of optimal performance during exercise participation is also desirable for those interested in promoting the enjoyment of exercise, positive affective experiences and adherence to physical activities.

Conceptual Overview

Csikszentmihalyi outlined the concept of flow and introduced nine dimensions that are associated with the concept of being “in the zone” or experiencing flow. These nine dimensions include challenge-skill balance, action-awareness merging, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration on immediate task, paradox of control, absence of self-consciousness, transformation of time, and autotelic experience.

The first dimension of flow is challenge-skill balance. This dimension refers to a match between challenges during a particular situation and perceived skills. The merging of action and awareness is the second dimension, which provides that deep involvement leads to spontaneity and automaticity. In a sense, the participant is unaware of separation between self and the activity when they are performing a particular task and become completely engulfed in participation. The third dimension is the establishment of clear goals so the participant has a strong sense of what they are doing and why. The fourth dimension, unambiguous feedback, represents clear and immediate feedback that one is achieving success in their endeavor. Total concentration of the task at hand is the fifth dimension. As Mr. Miyagi (Pat Morita) instructed Danielson (Ralph Macchio) in the 1980’s movie, The Karate Kid, “Clear mind and concentrate, Danielson.” The sixth dimension is described as the paradox of control. The paradox lies within the contradiction that by allowing oneself to go on automatic pilot (achieving states of flow) and in a sense lose control, we somehow subconsciously and inactively gain control of the task at hand. The seventh dimension is the loss of self-consciousness. This occurs when the participant loses concern for self and they become one with the activity. Time disorientation or loss of time awareness is the eighth dimension and is referred to as transformation of time. The ninth and final dimension is the end result of the activity as being an autotelic experience. This refers to the “elements of enjoyment” outlined by Csikszentmihalyi (1990) and the intrinsically rewarding, deep sense of enjoyment felt as a result of having achieved states of flow.

Each dimension of flow has been found to have relevance towards elite athletes (Jackson, 1996). Ninety-three percent of athletes interviewed by Jackson (1996) identified with five or more of these nine dimensions of flow. The research indicates that autotelic experience (an enjoyable experience) was the dimension with the greatest correlation to Csikszentmihalyi’s dimensions of flow. As indicated by Jackson’s study, not everyone has the same perception of being “in the zone” or flow. In agreement with Jackson, I believe it is a different combination of the nine dimensions for each individual. I like to think of the flow experience as a fingerprint. Although a fingerprint may look on the surface the same as every other fingerprint, upon further investigation, every fingerprint has its own pattern that’s unique and original. In the same way every athlete is unique and an original. What one athlete attributes to being “in the zone” or experiencing flow may be slightly different than the next athlete. Nonetheless, as studies indicate, there are consistencies in the phenomenon of experiencing flow and attaining zones of optimal function to draw assumptions from and create plans of action.

Application

Therefore, what can we do as coaches to facilitate the flow experience and improve our athletes’ ability to enter the zone and maintain a zone of optimal function? An article by Marc Bloom (1996) alludes to the activity of running and argues that, “each runner has a different mental state, a so-called zone prior to the race that helps them reach their optimal level of performance,” (p. 40). I believe this is true for most athletes. However the question still remains, what can be done to further identify these differentiating characteristics and help to create the experience of flow for a group of individuals who comprise a team?

To begin, coaches should take the time to try and identify each team members’ unique zone of optimal function. For example, a coach could first begin by taking an inventory and assessing the teams (or individuals) mental state prior to competition. The coach can then compare it to the results of that corresponding competition. By observing mental states before and after several competitions, a coach can begin to see the relationship between the pre-competitive states and coinciding results. A simple Likert scale from 1-10 can be devised measuring mental states with 1 being most relaxed and 10 being most anxious. After a competition, a coach can rate the performance using this similar fashion. A score of 1 can represent a terrible performance and 10 an outstanding one. After analyzing a number of competitions, a pattern should begin to emerge for each competitor or member of the team. From this information, inferences can then be made suggesting that the mental states preceding the best performances may be considered the participants’ zone of optimal function. With this information, coaches can determine what similarities and what differences are apparent within a team setting and design an appropriate training regiment.

In addition, coaches should try to integrate and facilitate an environment conducive to the nine dimensions of flow. For instance, a coach should always establish team goals and can also promote that each player set forth individual goals as well. They should also try to design training sessions that constantly include competition integrated with teamwork in an attempt to facilitate the dimensions of action-awareness merging and loss of self-consciousness. Additionally, by selecting evenly matched teams for scrimmages, a coach can create an environment that promotes challenge-skill balance. Keeping score and freezing the practice session at the right moments to illustrate valid coaching points are also recommended. These techniques can provide opportunities for continuous unambiguous feedback, which is important in facilitating flow experiences. Furthermore, try to provide “thinking” drills and games that sharpen cognitive skills and help participants focus on concentration skills. Lastly, but certainly not least, try to create an atmosphere conducive to having fun. As studies indicate, the main reason for discontinuing participation is lack of fun. By establishing a fun, fair, and competitive environment, ultimately an autotelic experience may be achieved.

In conclusion, as a coach, there is nothing more rewarding than having your players be disappointingly surprised when the training session that they’ve been working so hard in and you’ve designed for them has flown by and ends. The fact that they were enjoying themselves in the learning process, engulfed in their participation, and left wanting more is an indication that the practice facilitated flow and created an environment that helped athletes achieve zones of optimal function. This is the result of integrating the science and art of coaching. Truly the art in coaching. And remember, like fingerprints, we as coaches can make our own unique and original impressions on these young athletes and should take advantage of the opportunity to create and nurture such enjoyment and fulfillment.

Bibliography

Bloom, M. (November, 1996). In the zone: How to achieve optimal performance. Runner’s World, 11, 40-43.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco, CA. Josey-Bass.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1992). A response to the Kimiecik & Stein and Jackson papers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 4, 181-183.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997). Flow: The psychology of happiness. London: Rider.

Dillon, K., & Tait, J. (2000). Spirituality and being in the zone in team Sport: A relationship? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 91-100.

Grant, D. (2002). Painting in the zone: A concept from sports psychology helps a struggling artist to focus on her strengths and quiet critic within. American Artist, 66, 14-17.

Huang, A., & Lynch, J. (1992). Thinking body, dancing mind. New York: Bantam.

Jackson, S. (1996). Toward a conceptual understanding on the flow experience in elite athletes. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 76-91.

Karageorghis, C., Terry, P., & Vlachopoulos, S. (2000). Hierarchical confirmatory factor analysis of the Flow State Scale in exercise. Journal of Sports Sciences, 18, 815-830.

Mack, M., & Stephens, D. (2000). An empirical test of Taylor and Demick’s Multidimensional Model of Momentum in Sport. Journal of Sport Behavior, 23, 349-358.

About the Author:

Erik D. Farfan is currently in his fourth semester and is pursuing a M.A. in Kinesiology – Sport Psychology at California State University, Fresno. Erik has his United States Soccer Federation National “C” coaching license, is a member of the National Soccer Coaches Association of America, and is currently involved in his third year as an assistant coach of women’s soccer at Fresno Pacific University. He is also a head coach at both competitive club and high school varsity levels in his community.

David D. Neer, California State University, Fresno

Research has consistently shown that an athlete’s performance is improved by good psychological skills. As a professional golf instructor, I have seen that excellent mental skills greatly enhance golf play. As a junior college golf coach, I have experienced the need for the use of mental training for my athletes. Yet, I am constantly amazed that my fellow coaches have no knowledge, skill in, aptitude for or even interest in mental training techniques for their golfers. Perhaps they have no real knowledge of what is available to assist them in learning about mental training techniques, the benefits to themselves and their athletes and where to go for information and training?

Is Ignorance Bliss?

How widespread is this lack of knowledge about the beneficial effects of mental training for athletes? How many coaches in sports other than golf are not using these techniques in their programs? Although some coaches are aware of the benefits of mental training, they have several concerns: (a) information is needed that focuses on the development of more hands-on concrete examples and exercises, (b) more audio and video resources are needed, and (c) more actual training of coaches in mental training techniques. From training golfers, my experience is that to correct a problem, the teacher must first create an awareness of the problem for the student. This paper then is a part of creating that awareness that our athletes are not just physical beings, but mental also. Mental and physical training are essential to complete the whole.

Mind/Body Connection

As a golf instructor and coach, I find it very easy to get lost in doing nothing but work on the mechanics of the golf swing. For those readers that are golfers, you will appreciate the frustration and fascination of golf mechanics. We are constantly trying to find the right move, the right tip (i.e., keep your head down, keep the left arm straight, turn your shoulders, etc, etc.). What other sport has a 24-hour TV channel devoted to correct our swing errors!! Finally, though, in golf we are starting to place some emphasis on the other half of the equation, what is going on in our minds. Literature is now becoming more abundant in all sports and other disciplines in life about the mental side and the connection between the mind and the body. For a scientific explanation of the mind/body connection or mind/body unity, read Candace Pert’s Molecules of emotion (1997). Numerous studies have documented the beneficial effect of mental training on performance. To enhance a psychological skill, such as confidence, techniques such as imagery, goal-setting, relaxation and positive self-talk have been documented successfully. The knowledge is there and readily available, but perhaps the motivation or more importantly the marketing of the value of mental training techniques is lacking?

In my graduate studies at California State University, Fresno, I was shown an exercise that set bells off in terms of being able to market to or convince my student/athletes the value of mental training and the connection between the mind and the body. Coaches, try this with yourself and your athletes: I was given an 8 ½” x 11” piece of paper with two lines down the middle of the paper bisecting at the center of the page with a small circle drawn around that point. Then, I was given a 18” piece of thread with a paper clip tied to the end. Sitting down, with my elbow resting on the chair arm, I was asked to center the paper clip hanging from the thread over the center of the paper at the intersection of the two lines. Then, without moving my arm, fingers, or body I was to move the paper clip up and down the vertical line, then bring it to a stop over the center, then move it back and forth across the horizontal line. Then, after successfully doing this without moving my hand or fingers—I’m amazed now, since I have just moved the paper clip with my thoughts—I am asked to move the paper clip around the circle in a progressively greater arc. I did this to my amazement and marveled at this simple technique for showing how the mind affects the body and vice versa. Now, I had a tool to introduce the connection, to capture someone’s interest, so that they would look into mental training techniques. A simple, but effective exercise to open the door to the other half of life and hopefully move my students or fellow coaches to at least look into gaining some training in mental techniques and perhaps adding this vital other half to their coaching program. Following is a partial list of resources that will start, you the coach, on the path to a more complete training program for your athletes.

Resources for Mental Training

To learn more about sport psychology and mental training there are a variety of resources available. Information can be found in books, articles, scientific journals, newsletters, organizations and universities. Here are just a few to get you headed in the right direction:

Organizations:

American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance

Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport

Division 47 of the American Psychological Association

North American Society for Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity

Positive Coaching Alliance, Department of Athletics, Stanford University pca@positivecoach.org

Graduate programs in Sport Psychology:

Sachs, M.L., Burke, K.L., & Schrader, D.C. (Eds.). (2001). Directory of graduate programs in applied sport psychology (6th ed.). Morgantown, W.V.: Fitness Information Technology.

Workshops: Contact universities listed in the Sachs et al. (2001) book for current schedules.

How to find a sport psychologist: the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology has a consultant finder on their Internet site:

Bibliography

Anderson, M.B. (Ed.). (2000). Doing sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Baum, K. (1999). The mental edge: Maximize your sports potential with the mind-body connection. New York: Berkeley Publishing.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row.

Curry, L.A. & Maniar, S.D. (2003). Academic course combining psychological skills training and life skills education for university students and student-athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 270-277.

Feltz, D.L. & Landers, D.M. (1983). The effects of mental practice on motor skill learning and performance: A meta-analysis. Journal of Sport Psychology, 5, 25-57.

Frey, M., Laguna, P.L. & Ravizza, K. (2003). Collegiate athletes’ mental skill use and perceptions of success: An exploration of the practice and competition settings. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 15, 115-128.

Gould, D., Medbery, R., Damarjian, N., & Lauer, L. (1998b). An examination of mental skills training in junior tennis coaches. In Weinberg, R.S. & Gould, D.

(1999). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (p. 226.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Loehr, J.E. (1995). The new toughness training for sports: Mental, emotional, and physical conditioning. New York: Penguin Books.

Martens, R. (1987). Coaches guide to sport psychology. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Orlick, T. (2000). In pursuit of excellence (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Pendelton, M. & Gilbert, J. ( 2004, January). Psychological skills training (PST) program and rebounding with female collegiate basketball players.

PELINKS4U-Coaching and Sports, 6(1). Retrieved January 10, 2004,

Pert, C. (1999). Molecules of emotion. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Rotella, B. (1995). Golf is not a game of perfect. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Silva, J.M. & Steves, D.E. (Eds.). (2002). Psychological foundations of sport. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Thelwell, R.C. & Greenlees, L.A. (2003). Developing competitive endurance performance using mental skills training. The Sport Psychologist, 17, 318-337.

Weinberg, R.S. & Gould, D. (Eds.). (2003). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Williams, J.M. (Ed.). (2001). Applied sport psychology (4th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.

About the Author:

Dave Neer is a graduate student in sport psychology at California State University, Fresno. He is currently a professional golf instructor and head coach of the women’s and men’s golf teams at West Hills Valley College in Lemoore, Ca. He can be reached at DNGolf2@aol.com.

Cindy Renee Bitter, California State University, Fresno

The purpose of this article is to inform parents of potential problems that might occur when they choose to place their child in specialized sports programs at an early age. There are traps that parents can fall into if they are not aware of them.

One of the latest trends in sports today is the specialization of sports by players who are not physically or psychologically ready to compete year-round. Specializing is becoming more common because young athletes and their parents have been lead to believe that if they participate in one specific sport all year that they will receive a scholarship to college or a lucrative professional contract. Parents end up spending the same amount or more on club sports, travel ball, or other specialized sports as they would on college for their son or daughter. Specialization should begin in high school but it is now beginning to start as early as elementary school. What motivates children to play sports and what motivates parents to be involved in their child’s athletic lives? Studies have shown that the answers to these two questions by children and parents do not match up. If a parent uses such phrases as “we won three games this week” or “we need to play the next season of soccer or we will get behind”, there is a chance that a parent has fallen into some traps.

Seven Traps to Avoid in Sports Specialization in Youth Sports

1. Specialization before adolescence
2. Reverse-dependency trap (living vicariously through child)
3. Inappropriate cost of early specialization
4. Gain personal prestige through child’s sport success
5. Disruption of family time
6. Parents forget that their child is playing for fun
7. Sports rage

Specialization before Adolescence

The first trap parents fall into is starting their child out too young in sports specialization. Children need to be at an age appropriate maturation level, social level and cognitive level to play sports in the first place. The American Academy of Pediatrics states that youngsters should be discouraged from specializing in one sport before adolescence, which is around twelve to fourteen years of age. Physical problems of early specialization and intensive training by young athletes include “overuse” injuries such as medial epicondylitis (Little League Elbow) or tendonitis and stress fractures. Psychological problems include “burnout”, or withdrawal from the sport, by the time the player is actually ready to go to college and use that “bought and paid for” scholarship. There are now sports psychologists who can help identify burnout symptoms and develop strategies to alleviate the stress of burnout. Parents still believe that early specialization will keep the child from “falling behind”. Studies have shown that there is little relationship between early specialization and later achievement in a specific sport. More studies concluded that various sports played at a young age will increase the likelihood of later success in one specific sport.

Reverse-dependency Trap

The second trap is when parents live vicariously through their children involved in sports. The “we” statements addressed earlier is a sign that parents are involved in what is known as the reverse-dependency trap. It is when a parent’s self-worth depends on the success of the child. The need to win becomes more important for the parents and they will do whatever it takes to win. The view of what winning is, or should be, becomes distorted. Parents will pay more money and coaches will develop an elite year-long soccer program or have playoffs or all-stars to prove who is the best. They will again, start their child too young, as early as eight years old, and commit them to one sport year-round while the parent’s needs and coach’s needs are satisfied.

Inappropriate Cost of Early Specialization

This leads parents into the third trap, which is paying too much for elite and specialized teams. The cost of travel soccer and club volleyball at the higher levels can range from $1,000 to $3,500. Does a player improve and develop because it is more expensive or can a player improve just by playing a sport for free down at the gym or soccer field? I have heard the argument that the coaches are better, but I have not witnessed this. There are volleyball coaches fresh out of high school or college with no coaching experience coaching elite teams. Many private and commercial programs encourage exclusive attention to a single sport and require year-round fees because it is in the interest of program owners and staff. They claim that staying competitive and moving up to higher levels of competition require a year long commitment. More “high performance” programs for team sports and individual sports are available today because parents are willing to pay the money for them when their child is probably not ready physically or mentally for sport specialization.

Gain Personal Prestige through Child’s Sport Success

The fourth trap that parents fall into is the desire to “out do the Joneses”. Parents gain attention or prestige when other people know that their child plays on a “travel team” or “club team”. The more money the elite organizations cost, the more prestige or attention they will get from other parents. The younger the player, the more the parent is able to brag about it. In turn, other parents will pay the same amount of money or start their child out younger so their child will not be left behind. If one parent pays for a personal coach or trainer, the other parents will follow suit. If one parent travels across the country for an elite tournament because there is better competition there, so will the next parent. This can be an ugly cycle, especially if a parent can not afford to keep up with year after year of specialized training costs.

Disruption of Family Time

The fifth trap is enduring the long hours for travel at the expense of personal family time. Specialized and elite teams practice in the evening and play on the weekends. This time that used to be for the family is now used for traveling to tournaments. There is often more that one child who participates in sports and parents are the taxis who sometimes have to travel to different cities in one weekend. Family vacations become a tournament for these specialized sports while real vacation time is discouraged because the player needs to be fully committed to the team. Does a young athlete, under-12, really need to travel every weekend or practice four nights a week to become a better athlete? They have not reached puberty; they might not want to play that sport next year. Let them decide what they want to play and limit the time they play it.

Parents Forget that Child is Playing for Fun

The sixth trap is that the parents forget that their child is playing a sport or activity to have fun. Several studies have been done that ask children why they participate in sports. The common themes that were identified were to have fun, learn or improve a new skill, physical fitness, enjoy sports participation and competition, and be with friends. As parents become more involved with youth sports they tend to treat the organization like a business and their young child like an employee. The parent will push the child to excel more while the child begins to hate the activity; the activity that they used to love. Parent involvement has increased in youth sports because of the notion that good parents must be involved in monitoring all aspects of their child’s lives. Parents will try to find the best organized youth sports programs for their children and often become too involved and forget that the child is there to have fun; without disruptive parent involvement.

Sports Rage

The seventh and final trap that parents will fall into is derived from the over involvement in youth sports. The trap is sports rage, which is defined as any physical attack, touching in an offensive manner, malicious or verbal abuse, or harassment that threatens violence or bodily harm. Parents become emotionally involved with the game because their child is involved and because they are protective. Parents need to know the role their child plays on a team or they might have a distorted view of their child’s potential playing time and become angered. Parents need to address questions such as: Can I share my son or daughter? Can I accept my child’s disappointments? Can I show self-control, can I give my child some time? Can I let my child make their own decisions? The roles of the parent, coach, and athlete in the athletic triangle need to be understood in order to maintain appropriate control of what aspect you are involved in. There is Parent Codes of Conduct literature available as well as seminars for parents to attend. There are mandatory behavior programs for parents, such as the Parents Association for Youth Sports (PAYS) program. These programs are being developed to prevent situations of violence at sporting events.

As you look at the parent traps involved with sports specialization in youth sports such as age appropriateness, living through your child, cost, prestige, time, reasons kids play, and sports rage, try to identify yourself and stop and consider the following estimation of probability that your child will compete beyond high school. Among all the athletes who compete in high school sports that have major professional leagues in North America - basketball, football, baseball, ice hockey, soccer - less than 0.04% will be drafted to professional sport. Know that there is little relationship between specializing at a young age and future success in one sport.

Bibliography

Bigelow, B., Hall, L. & Moroney, T. (2001). Just let the kids play: How to stop other adults from ruining your child’s fun and success in youth sports. Deerfield Beach, FL: Health Communications.

Brady, F. (2004). Children’s organized sports: A developmental perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 75(2), 35-41.

Coakley, J. (2004). Sports in Society: Issues and controversies (8th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

Cox, R. (2002). Sport psychology: Concepts and applications (5th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.

Gilbert, J. (2003, January 2). Stress and burnout – Symptoms and strategies: A case study of Deena. PELINKS4U, 5(1).

Heinzmann, G. (2004). Parental violence in youth sports: Facts, myths, and videotape.

Pediatrics. (July, 2000). Intensive training and sports specialization in young athletes. Retrieved March 20, 2004

Spooner Health Systems. (2000, July 28). Children in sports. Retrieved March 15, 2004

Tanner, L. (2000, July 4). Specialization discouraged for youngsters. The Columbus Dispatch. Retrieved March 15, 2004

Thompson, J. (1995). Positive coaching: Building character and self-esteem through sports. Portola Valley, CA: Warde.

About the Author:

The author is a graduate student in the Kinesiology Department at California State University, Fresno. She has been a physical education teacher for nine years and a coach of various sports for 15 years. She is currently teaching at Fort Miller Middle School in Fresno. You can reach her at teambitter@hotmail.com.